Emotions and leadership: The role of emotional intelligence, Jennifer George, Human Relations, August 2000 v53 i8 p1027
ABSTRACT This paper suggests that feelings (moods and emotions)
play a central
role in the leadership process. More specifically, it is proposed
that
emotional intelligence, the ability to understand and manage
moods and
emotions in the self and others, contributes to effective
leadership in
organizations. Four major aspects of emotional intelligence, the
appraisal and
expression of emotion, the use of emotion to enhance cognitive
processes and
decision making, knowledge about emotions, and management of
emotions, are
described. Then, I propose how emotional intelligence contributes
to effective
leadership by focusing on five essential elements of leader
effectiveness:
development of collective goals and objectives; instilling in
others an
appreciation of the importance of work activities; generating and
maintaining
enthusiasm, confidence, optimism, cooperation, and trust
encouraging
flexibility in decision making and change; and establishing and
maintaining a
meaningful identity for an organization.
KEYWORDS affect * emotion * emotional intelligence * leadership *
mood
By all counts, leadership ranks among the most researched and
debated topics
in the organizational sciences. A wide diversity of approaches to
leadership
has been proposed -- researchers have analyzed what leaders are
like, what
they do, how they motivate their followers, how their styles
interact with
situational conditions, and how they can make major changes in
their
organizations, for example (for reviews of the leadership
literature see Bass,
1990; Fiedler & House, 1994; Yukl, 1998; Yukl & Van
Fleet, 1992). Researchers
have also explored when leadership might not be important and
some leadership
experts have proposed that leadership is more a creation in the
minds of
followers than a characteristic of those who occupy leadership
roles (e.g.
Meindl, 1990). While we have learned much about leadership from
this diversity
of approaches, it still remains somewhat of an enigma. While
research has been
conducted which supports (and sometimes fails to support)
currently popular
theories, and these theories have increased our understanding of
leadership,
how and why leaders have (or fail to have) positive influences on
their
followers and organizations is still a compelling question for
leadership
researchers.
While existing studies detail what leaders are like, what they
do, and how
they make decisions, the effects of leaders' feelings or their
moods and
emotions and, more generally, the role of emotions in the
leadership process,
are often not explicitly considered in the leadership literature,
with the
notable exception of work on charisma (e.g. Conger & Kanungo,
1998; Lindholm,
1990). This relative neglect is not surprising as the
organizational
literature has been dominated by a cognitive orientation (Ilgen
& Klein,
1989), with feelings being ignored or being seen as something
that gets in the
way of rationality and effective decision making (Albrow, 1992).
Just as
motivation theory and research have ignored how workers' moods
and emotions
influence their choice of work activities, levels of effort, and
levels of
persistence in the face of obstacles (George & Brief, 1996),
leadership theory
and research have not adequately considered how leaders' moods
and emotions
influence their effectiveness as leaders. Tw o preliminary
studies suggest
that leaders' feelings may play an important role in leadership.
George and
Bettenhausen (1990) found that the extent to which leaders of
existing work
groups experienced positive moods was positively related to
levels of
prosocial behavior performed by group members and negatively
related to group
turnover rates. George (1995) found that work groups led by sales
managers who
tended to experience positive moods at work provided higher
quality customer
service than groups led by managers who did not tend to
experience positive
moods at work. While these two studies help to fill a gap in the
leadership
literature, in and of themselves, they do not illuminate the role
of moods and
emotions in the leadership process per se but rather suggest that
feelings may
be an important factor to consider.
The growing body of literature exploring the role of moods and
emotions in
human and organizational affairs (e.g. Fineman, 1993; Forgas,
1995) suggests
that, rather than being simply an additional factor to consider,
feelings play
a much more central role in the leadership process. The purpose
of this paper
is to present a framework describing what that role might be.
First, however,
it is useful to sample the literature and research findings
attesting to the
central role of feelings in human affairs.
The role of feelings in human affairs
A growing body of literature suggests that moods and emotions
play a central
role in cognitive processes and behavior. What distinguishes
moods from
emotions is their intensity. Moods are pervasive and generalized
feeling
states that are not tied to the events or circumstances which may
have caused
the mood in the first place (Morris, 1989). Moods are relatively
low intensity
feelings which do not interrupt ongoing activities (Forgas,
1992a). Emotions
are high intensity feelings that are triggered by specific
stimuli (either
internal or external to the individual), demand attention, and
interrupt
cognitive processes and behaviors (Forgas, 1992a; Morris, 1989;
Simon, 1982).
Emotions tend to be more fleeting than moods because of their
intensity.
Emotions often feed into moods so that, once the intensity of an
emotion
subsides because the individual has cognitively or behaviorally
dealt with its
cause, the emotion lingers on in the form of a less intense
feeling or mood.
Hence, for example, the intense anger th at a leader might
experience upon
learning that he or she was deceived by a follower resulting in a
lost
opportunity subsides once the leader has recovered from the shock
and decides
how to deal with the situation. However, the anger lives on for
the rest of
the day in the form of a negative mood which colors the leader's
interactions
and thought processes.
Feelings have been shown to influence the judgments that people
make, material
recalled from memory, attributions for success and failure,
creativity, and
inductive and deductive reasoning. When people are in positive
moods, for
example, their perceptions and evaluations are likely to be more
favorable,
they are more prone to remember positive information, they are
more
self-assured, they are more likely to take credit for successes
and avoid
blame for failures, and they are more helpful to others (e.g.
Bower, 1981;
Cunningham et al., 1980; Forgas et al., 1984, 1990; George, 1991;
Isen et al.,
1976, 1978; Rosenhan et al., 1981). Positive moods have been
found to enhance
flexibility on categorization tasks and facilitate creativity and
inductive
reasoning (Isen et al., 1985, 1987). Conversely, negative moods
may foster
deductive reasoning and more critical and comprehensive
evaluations (Salovey
et al., 1993; Sinclair & Mark, 1992).
While a stereotype of the 'rational' decision maker is a person
who can set
aside their personal feelings and coolly calculate the best
course of action
to deal with a problem or opportunity, neurological findings
suggest that
feelings are necessary to make good decisions (Damasio, 1994;
Goleman, 1995).
Neurological research on patients who have had brain tumors
removed and
subsequent damage to sectors of the brain responsible for moods
and emotions
has yielded a perplexing pattern of results. Some of these
patients show no
deficits in memory, intelligence, verbal ability, and numerical
ability. Given
the nature of their injuries, however, they tend to be
emotionally flat. For
example, they don't seem upset when recounting their own personal
injury,
problems, and disappointments or when viewing pictures that
induce negative
feelings in people without any brain injuries. Elliot, a former
attorney, seen
by neurologist Damasio, was one such patient. After removal of
his brain
tumor, Elliot continued to score ei ther at average or
above-average levels on
measures of intelligence and other cognitive abilities. However,
his life fell
apart after his injury. He had trouble regularly attending work,
when at work
had a hard time getting things done, and eventually lost his job
and got
divorced. After much research and analysis and comparison with
other patients
with similar kinds of injuries, Damasio concluded that Elliot's
lack of
feeling left him unable to make decisions. On problem-solving
tasks, for
example, Elliot could come up with multiple viable solutions and
the pros and
cons for each, yet could not choose among them. Feelings help us
to make
choices and decide among options and, once devoid of feelings,
people can
'rationally' assess pros and cons of choices ranging from what's
the best time
to schedule a doctor's appointment to what type of career to
pursue, yet may
never be able to make a wise choice from the alternatives
generated (Damasio,
1994; Goleman, 1995). While very intense emotions can certainly
inter fere
with effective decision making, as Damasio (1994: 53) suggests,
'reduction in
emotion may constitute an equally important source of irrational
behavior.'
This brief sampling of findings is indicative of a wider body of
literature
which, though in diverse areas such as neuropsychology, social
psychology, and
organizational behavior, point to a consistent conclusion:
feelings are
intimately connected to the human experience. Feelings are
intricately bound
up in the ways that people think, behave, and make decisions.
In this regard, Forgas' (1995) affect infusion model (AIM)
provides a useful
framework for understanding the conditions under which affect is
most likely
to influence cognition, judgment, and decision making. More
specifically and
counterintuitively, the AIM suggests that affect is particularly
likely to
influence judgments during substantive processing. Substantive
processing
occurs when decision makers are faced with a complex task in need
of extensive
and constructive information processing, and when ambiguity and
uncertainty
exist, new information needs to be assimilated, and decision
makers desire to
make accurate judgments and good decisions (Fiedler, 1991;
Forgas, 1992b,
1993, 1994, 1995). Affect priming is an important mechanism
through which
affect infuses judgments during substantive processing. Affect
priming refers
to the selective attention to, encoding, and retrieval of
information
congruent with one's current affective state as well as the
tendency to make
mood-congruent interpretations and associations (e.g. Bower,
1981, 1991; Clark
& Waddell, 1983; Forgas, 199 5; Forgas & Bower, 1987;
Isen, 1984, 1987; Singer
& Salovey, 1988).
Additionally, the AIM model suggests that affect is likely to
influence
judgments when decision makers resort to a heuristic processing
strategy.
Heuristic processing tends to take place when decision makers are
making
judgments that are simple or commonplace and not very personally
relevant,
there is little pressure to be detailed or accurate, and there
are other
demands on current information processing (Forgas, 1995). Under
these
conditions, one's current affective state may be used as a
heuristic such that
decision makers deduce their judgment from their current
affective state or
how they feel at the time the judgment is being made (Clore &
Parrott, 1991;
Forgas, 1995; Schwarz & Bless, 1991).
Feelings and leadership
The literature briefly described above is representative of a
much wider body
of knowledge which suggests that feelings serve multiple purposes
in human
affairs. As will be demonstrated below, it is likely that
feelings play an
important role in leadership. While George and Bettenhausen
(1990) and George
(1995) investigated some of the potential beneficial consequences
of leader
positive mood, it is likely that a diversity of feelings (both
emotions and
moods) influences leadership effectiveness. Negative moods, for
example,
foster systematic and careful information processing (Sinclair,
1988; Sinclair
& Mark, 1992) and may be advantageous when leaders are
dealing with complex
problems in which errors carry high risk. As another example,
relatively
intense negative emotions may appropriately redirect a leader's
attention to
an issue in need of immediate attention (Frigda, 1988). For
example, a leader
who experiences anger upon learning of a pattern of covert sexual
harassment
in a department might be well ser ved by this emotional response.
The anger
signals to the leader (Frigda, 1988) that his or her attention
must be
redirected from new product development to confronting the sexual
harassment
problem and improving the organization's efforts to eliminate
harassment.
By now, it may be apparent that it is not too difficult to
construct scenarios
in which leaders would be well served by the experience of a
variety of types
of moods and emotions. Moreover, one can also construct scenarios
in which a
leader's effectiveness may be hampered by the experience of
certain moods and
emotions. Leaders who experience anger frequently may have a
difficult time
building good relationships with followers and engendering their
trust (Jones
& George, 1998). Similarly, a leader who frequently
experiences positive moods
on the job may fail to notice and attend to performance
shortfalls that are
less than apparent.
Hence, this inquiry into the role of feelings in leadership is
not bent on
determining the 'right' or 'effective' moods and emotions that
facilitate
leadership effectiveness. Leaders are obviously human beings with
the full
range of moods and emotions potentially available to them. Both
positive and
negative moods and emotions serve numerous functions in people's
lives.
Likewise, both positive and negative moods and emotions can
sometimes be the
cause of human dysfunctions.
This paper does seek to explore, however, whether effective
leaders possess
certain emotional capabilities just as they may possess certain
cognitive
capabilities (Bass, 1990; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Yukl,
1998). Moods and
emotions play an extensive role in thought processes and behavior
(Bower,
1981; Bower & Cohen, 1982; Clark & Isen, 1982; Forgas,
1995; George & Brief,
1992; Isen & Baron, 1991; Isen & Shalker, 1982; Isen et
al., 1978; Leventhal &
Tomarken, 1986; Rosenhan et al., 1981; Teasdale & Fogarty,
1979) and the same
moods and emotions can result in both improved or impaired
effectiveness
depending upon multiple factors including the index of
effectiveness (for
example, a quick, heuristic-based response vs. a careful
consideration of
alternatives) (Salovey et al., 1993; Sinclair & Mark, 1992).
Moreover,
research suggests that people can and do take steps to manage
their own and
others' moods and emotions (Mayer et al., 1991; Salovey &
Mayer, 1989-90).
Might it be that some leaders have superior mo od/emotion
capabilities which
allow them to use and benefit from the variety of feelings they
experience on
the job? Might it also be that these capabilities enable leaders
to influence,
and develop effective interpersonal relationships with, their
followers?
Interpersonal relationships are laden with moods and emotions as
is effective
social influence.
These mood/emotion capabilities have been addressed by emotional
intelligence
theory and research. In the next section, I briefly describe
emotional
intelligence, and the theory and research which support its role
in human
affairs. Next, I describe how emotional intelligence may be a key
contributor
to leadership effectiveness and outline how different aspects of
emotional
intelligence facilitate the varied activities central to
effective leadership.
While emotional intelligence has been linked previously to
specific leader
behaviors (Megerian & Sosik, 1996), this paper adopts a
broader approach and
explores the multitude of ways in which emotional intelligence
may contribute
to leadership effectiveness.
Additionally, I would like to point out that earlier leadership
approaches,
and in particular the trait approach, also have described certain
leadership
skills or traits that may either be subsumed under or may
partially overlap
with emotional intelligence (for reviews, see Bass, 1990; Yukl,
1998).
Moreover, while the term 'emotional intelligence' has been coined
relatively
recently, it bears some resemblance and partially overlaps with
earlier
concepts such as social intelligence (Legree, 1995; Sternberg
& Smith, 1985;
Wong et al., 1995). However, as Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (in
press) suggest,
emotional intelligence is theoretically preferable to earlier
constructs such
as social intelligence because it is more focused on affect per
se. Emotional
intelligence includes internal, private feelings that influence
functioning
which may not necessarily be linked to social skills and also
focuses
exclusively on emotional skills rather than confounding them with
social or
political knowledge (Mayer et al., in pre ss). Hence, as will
become clearer
below, emotional intelligence captures capabilities and skills in
the emotion
domain to a greater extent than prior constructs.
Emotional intelligence
Emotional intelligence is 'the ability to perceive emotions, to
access and
generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions
and
emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as
to promote
emotional and intellectual growth' (Mayer & Salovey, 1997:
5). Prior to
continuing, it should be pointed out that the term 'emotional' in
emotional
intelligence is used broadly to refer to moods as well as
emotions. So as to
be consistent with the emotional intelligence literature, in the
remainder of
this paper, 'emotions' will be used to refer to both emotions and
moods.
Emotional intelligence essentially describes the ability to
effectively join
emotions and reasoning, using emotions to facilitate reasoning
and reasoning
intelligently about emotions (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). In
other words,
emotional intelligence taps into the extent to which people's
cognitive
capabilities are informed by emotions and the extent to which
emotions are
cognitively managed. Additionally, it should be pointed out that
emotional
intelligence is distinct from predispositions to experience
certain kinds of
emotions captured by the personality traits of positive and
negative
affectivity (George, 1996; Tellegen, 1985).
There are at least four major aspects of emotional intelligence:
the appraisal
and expression of emotion, the use of emotion to enhance
cognitive processes
and decision making, knowledge about emotions, and management of
emotions
(Table 1). While each of these aspects of emotional intelligence
are quite
involved, here I provide you with a brief overview of some of
their key
elements. This discussion draws from the work of Mayer, Salovey,
and their
colleagues (e.g. Mayer & Salovey, 1993, 1995, 1997; Mayer et
al., 1990;
Salovey & Mayer, 1989-90, 1994; Salovey et al., 1993, 1995).
The appraisal and expression of emotion
Appraisal and expression of emotion pertain to both the self and
other people.
People differ in terms of the degree to which they are aware of
the emotions
they experience and the degree to which they can verbally and
non-verbally
express these emotions to others. Accurately appraising emotions
facilitates
the use of emotional input in forming judgments and making
decisions. The
accurate expression of emotion ensures that people are able to
effectively
communicate with others to meet their needs and accomplish their
goals or
objectives.
Some people are actually reluctant or ambivalent about expressing
emotions.
Two types of ambivalence have been identified (King & Emmons,
1991). Some
ambivalent people actually want to express their emotions,
agonize over doing
it, and fail to (Emmons & Colby, 1995). Others do express
their emotions but
then regret doing so. Both types of ambivalence have been linked
to anxiety,
depression, some psychiatric disorders, lower well-being, and
less social
support (Emmons & Colby, 1995; Katz & Campbell, 1994;
King & Emmons, 1990,
1991). At a general level, ambivalence over expression of
emotions can hamper
an individual from developing beneficial interpersonal
relationships in life.
People also differ in terms of their ability to accurately
express emotions.
Some people, referred to as alexithymics, cannot appraise their
own emotions
and are unable to communicate their feelings using language
(Apfel & Sifneos,
1979; Krystal et al., 1986; Sifneos, 1972, 1973; Taylor, 1984;
Thayer-Singer
1977). Alexithymics are vulnerable to a variety of psychological
problems
which may result from their inability to express their feelings
(Salovey et
al., 1993). Individuals also differ in their ability to express
emotions
nonverbally with facial expressions and body language (Buck,
1979, 1984;
Friedman et al., 1980).
Appraising and expressing the emotions of others is the ability
to accurately
determine the emotions other people are experiencing and the
ability to
accurately convey or communicate these feelings. Much of the
appraisal of
emotion in others comes from nonverbal cues. When people tell
each other how
they are feeling, appraisal is relatively straightforward.
However, sometimes
the emotions people claim to have are not actually the ones they
are
experiencing and at other times people are reluctant to express
their
emotions. People differ in the extent to which they can
accurately appraise
emotions in others, particularly from facial expressions (Buck,
1984; Campbell
et al., 1971).
Related to the appraisal and expression of emotion in others is
the concept of
empathy, the ability to understand and experience another
person's feelings or
emotions (Mehrabian & Epstein, 1972; Wispe, 1986). Empathy, a
contributor to
emotional intelligence, is an important skill which enables
people to provide
useful social support and maintain positive interpersonal
relationships
(Batson, 1987; Kessler et al., 1985; Thoits, 1986).
The use of emotion to enhance cognitive processes and decision
making
Emotional intelligence does not only entail being aware of one's
own emotions,
but also using these emotions in functional ways. First, emotions
can be
useful in terms of directing attention to pressing concerns and
signalling
what should be the focus of attention (Frigda, 1988; George &
Brief, 1996).
Second, emotions can be used in choosing among options and making
decisions;
being able to anticipate how one would feel if certain events
took place can
help decision makers choose among multiple options (Damasio,
1994). Third,
emotions can be used to facilitate certain kinds of cognitive
processes. As
mentioned earlier, positive moods can facilitate creativity,
integrative
thinking, and inductive reasoning, and negative moods can
facilitate attention
to detail, detection of errors and problems, and careful
information
processing (Isen et al., 1985, 1987; Salovey et al., 1993;
Sinclair & Mark,
1992). Finally, shifts in emotions can lead to more flexible
planning, the
generation of multiple alternatives, and a b roadened perspective
on problems
(Mayer, 1986; Salovey & Mayer 1989-90). When people are in
positive moods, for
example, they tend to be more optimistic and perceive that
positive events are
more likely and negative events are less likely; when people are
in negative
moods they tend to be more pessimistic and perceive that positive
events are
less likely and negative events are more likely (Bower, 1981;
Salovey &
Birnbaum, 1989). People in positive moods also tend to have
heightened
perceptions of their future success and self-efficacy (Forgas et
al., 1990;
Kavanagh & Bower, 1985). By evaluating the same opportunities
and problems in
varying mood states, a broad range of options will be brought to
mind and
considered. And, as you will see below, emotional intelligence
entails using
emotions for these purposes.
Knowledge about emotions
Emotional knowledge is concerned with understanding both the
determinants and
consequences of moods and emotions, and how they evolve and
change over time.
People differ in their awareness and understanding of how
different
situations, events, people, and other stimuli generate emotions.
A leader who
is surprised when followers' initial reaction to an announced
restructuring
(even with a guarantee of no layoffs) is fear and anxiety is not
knowledgeable
about the determinants of emotions. Over time, emotions and moods
change --
fear and anxiety might evolve into a negative mood and then to
apathy or to a
more intense state of agitation. While emotions can progress in
different ways
-- enthusiasm can lead to further levels of excitation or to a
less intense
sense of general well-being -- some people are especially attuned
to these
kinds of progressions and their causes.
Appreciation of the consequences of moods and emotions also
varies across
individuals. Some people have a rudimentary understanding of how
they (and
other people) are influenced by feelings and use this knowledge
in functional
ways. A leader in a negative mood who decides to delay meeting
with followers
to discuss upcoming changes in need of their support until they
are feeling
better intuitively realizes how their ability to enthusiastically
communicate
information about the changes and garner their followers' support
is
influenced by their current feelings. Similarly, a home buyer in
a positive
mood who sees a house they really like but forestalls making a
final decision
until they return to the house in a couple of days in a different
'frame of
mind' possesses an understanding of how their appraisal of the
house may be
colored by their good mood. On the other hand, some people are
oblivious to
the effects of feelings. A stereotype of obliviousness to the
effects of
feelings is the family member who has ha d a hard day at work,
comes home in a
bad mood, and proceeds to get into arguments with spouse and
children. This
family member, however, never realizes how their bad mood is
contributing to
the disagreements and, instead, berates everyone else for their
presumed
failings, intensifying their own bad mood as well as the
disagreements.
Management of emotions
Emotional intelligence also includes a more proactive dimension
with regards
to feelings: the management of one's own and other people's moods
and
emotions. Research has found that people strive to maintain
positive moods and
alleviate negative moods (e.g. Clark & Isen, 1982; Isen &
Levin, 1972; Mayer
et al., 1991; Mischel et al., 1973; Morris & Reilly, 1987);
emotional
intelligence captures individual differences in the extent to
which one is
able to successfully manage moods and emotions in these ways.
Management of
one's own moods and emotions also relies on knowledge and
consideration of the
determinants, appropriateness, and malleability of moods and
emotions. This
regulation entails a reflective process, which has been referred
to as the
meta-regulation of mood (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Essentially,
emotional
intelligence encompasses individual differences in the ability to
accurately
reflect on one's moods and manage them (Salovey et al., 1995).
Emotional intelligence entails not just being able to manage
one's own
feelings, but also being able to manage the moods and emotions of
others.
Being able to excite and enthuse other people or make them feel
cautious and
wary is an important interpersonal skill and vehicle of social
influence
(Wasielewski, 1985). In order to be able to manage the moods and
emotions of
others, people must be able to appraise and express emotions,
effectively use
emotions, and be knowledgeable about emotions. Hence, the other
three
dimensions of emotional intelligence described above contribute
to leaders
being able to influence and manage the emotions of their
followers. [1]
Recap
These four aspects of emotional intelligence are related. For
example, as
mentioned above, awareness of emotions is necessary for their
management. As
another example, empathy may contribute to being able to manage
emotions in
others. Consistent with this reasoning, preliminary research
suggests that the
four aspects of emotional intelligence are positively correlated
with each
other (e.g. Mayer et al., 1990, in press; Mayer & Geher,
1996; Mayer &
Salovey, 1997). Additionally, and as mentioned earlier, while
emotional
intelligence is a relatively new construct, it has roots in other
constructs
such as social intelligence which have a relatively long history
(Ford &
Tisak, 1983; Sternberg & Smith, 1985; Walker & Foley,
1973). However,
emotional intelligence captures more of the essence of the active
and
purposeful integration of feelings and thoughts for effective
functioning than
these earlier constructs.
Emotional intelligence and effective leadership
While emotional intelligence can lead to enhanced functioning in
a variety of
aspects of life such as achievement and close relationships
(Goleman, 1995;
Salovey & Mayer, 1989-90), I propose that it may play a
particularly important
role in leadership effectiveness. To clarify this role, I propose
how the four
aspects of emotional intelligence described above -- appraisal
and expression
of emotion, use of emotion to enhance cognitive processing and
decision
making, knowledge about emotions, and management of emotions --
contribute to
effective leadership.
In order to explore the implications of emotional intelligence
for effective
leadership, it is necessary to identify the fundamental nature of
effective
leadership. This is no easy task given the plethora of leadership
theories,
approaches, and empirical findings. Fortunately, several recent
syntheses of
the leadership literature have been offered which are consistent
in terms of
their descriptions of effective leadership. Based on the
syntheses of Yukl
(1998), Locke (1991), and Conger and Kanungo (1998), as well as
the larger
leadership literature, specific elements of leadership
effectiveness can be
identified. Note that, while no specific theory of leadership is
entailed in
these elements, the elements themselves have roots in a variety
of theoretical
traditions. As described by these authors (i.e. Conger &
Kanungo, 1998; Locke,
1991; Yukl, 1998), effective leadership includes the following
essential
elements: [2]
* development of a collective sense of goals and objectives and
how to go
about achieving them;
* instilling in others knowledge and appreciation of the
importance of work
activities and behaviors;
* generating and maintaining excitement, enthusiasm, confidence,
and optimism
in an organization as well as cooperation and trust;
* encouraging flexibility in decision making and change;
* establishing and maintaining a meaningful identity for an
organization.
Below, I consider how emotional intelligence may help leaders
carry out these
activities and therefore contribute to leader effectiveness.
Development of a collective sense of goals and objectives and how
to go about
achieving them
The goals and objectives considered here are major, overarching
goals that are
commonly referred to as the leader's vision for the organization
(e.g. Conger
& Kanungo, 1998; Locke, 1991). Emotional intelligence may
contribute to
leaders developing a compelling vision for their groups or
organizations in a
number of ways. First, leaders may use their emotions to enhance
their
information processing of the challenges, threats, issues, and
opportunities
facing their organizations. Leaders are often faced with a large
amount of
information characterized by uncertainty and ambiguity; out of
this
information, they need to chart a course for their groups or
organizations. In
terms of the AIM model (Forgas, 1995), leaders are likely to
engage in
substantive processing as they seek to determine the direction
for their
organizations. They are dealing with complex information with
high uncertainty
and the desire to be accurate. Recall that the AIM model suggests
that current
affective state is likely to influence judgme nts resulting from
substantive
processing through the mechanism of affect priming.
Research linking positive moods to creativity suggests that when
leaders are
in positive moods they may be more creative (Isen et al., 1987)
and, hence,
more likely to come up with a compelling vision that contrasts
with existing
conditions. For example, people in positive moods have been found
to be more
integrative, use broader categories, and approach problems and
categorization
more flexibly (Isen & Baron, 1991; Isen & Daubman, 1984;
Isen et al., 1985;
Murray et al., 1990). Creating a compelling vision for an
organization can be
an exercise in creativity, positive thinking, and flexibility and
such an
exercise will be facilitated by positive moods (Isen et al.,
1985; Murray et
al., 1990). Leaders who are high on emotional intelligence will
be better able
to take advantage of and use their positive moods and emotions to
envision
major improvements in their organizations' functioning.
Leaders high on emotional intelligence also are likely to have
knowledge about
the fact that their positive moods may cause them to be overly
optimistic.
Hence, in order to ensure that they are being realistic and
appropriately
critical, they may be more likely to revisit their judgments when
in a more
neutral or negative mood to ensure a careful consideration of all
the issues
involved. Such leaders also are likely to be better able to
repair negative
moods arising from any number of sources that may limit
flexibility and
creativity, and, more generally, use meta-mood processes to
manage their moods
and emotions in functional ways (Mayer et al., 1991).
Importantly, leaders need not only to come up with a compelling
vision, but
also to effectively communicate it throughout the organization in
such a way
that it does come to be shared and is 'collective'. By accurately
appraising
how their followers currently feel, relying on their knowledge of
emotions to
understand why they feel this way, and influencing followers'
emotions so that
they are receptive to and supportive of the leader's goals or
objectives for
the organization and proposed ways to achieve them, leaders may
help to ensure
that their vision is shared or collective. For example, a leader
who is high
on emotional intelligence may act on emotional knowledge which
suggests that
followers are more likely to experience positive emotions and be
supportive of
the leader's goals and objectives when the leader expresses
confidence in
followers and serves to elevate their levels of self-efficacy
(Gardner &
Avolio, 1998).
Instilling in others knowledge and appreciation of the importance
of work
activities and behaviors
In order to instill in others an appreciation of the importance
of work
activities, leaders need to ensure that followers are aware of
problems and
major issues facing an organization as well as potential
opportunities while
at the same time raising their confidence in their own abilities
to
successfully overcome problems, meet challenges, and seize
opportunities.
Leaders need to understand and influence followers' emotions such
that they
are aware of the serious nature of problems yet, given the
leader's vision,
are enthusiastic about resolving the problems and feel optimistic
about
personal contributions. Leaders who are high on emotional
intelligence are
more knowledgeable of, and adept at managing, emotions in these
subtle kinds
of ways. Moreover, they are more likely to intuitively possess
and act on
meta-mood regulation knowledge such as the fact that people feel
better when
gains or positive events are presented in terms of improvements
over previous
conditions (Aronson & Linder, 1965; Salovey et al., 1993).
Generating and maintaining excitement, enthusiasm, confidence,
and optimism in
an organization as well as cooperation and trust
In order for leaders to generate and maintain excitement and
enthusiasm, they
must be able to appraise how their followers feel, and be
knowledgeable about
how to influence these feelings. They must also be able to
anticipate how
followers will react to different circumstances, events, and
changes, and
effectively manage these reactions. Leaders need to manage
emotions such that
followers are aware of problems yet, given the collective vision,
are
confident about resolving problems and feel optimistic about the
efficacy of
their personal contributions.
Moreover, leaders need to be able to distinguish between the
emotions their
followers are actually experiencing, their 'real' feelings, and
the emotions
they express. Research on the expression of emotion has
documented that people
often deliberately control their expressed emotions for a variety
of reasons
including the existence of display rules (Ekman, 1973) which
dictate which
emotions should and should not be expressed in a given social
context
(Hochschild, 1983; Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987, 1989). Effective
leaders need to be
able to distinguish between, for example, excitement and
enthusiasm that are
faked versus excitement and enthusiasm that are genuinely felt.
When the
excitement and enthusiasm are faked, a leader needs to determine
why as well
as try to instill real feelings of excitement and enthusiasm.
Through their
ability to appraise other people's emotions, their knowledge of
emotions, and
their ability to manage emotions, leaders who are high on
emotional
intelligence are likely to be better able to decipher when
expressed emotions
are genuine, understand why they may be faked, and influence
followers to
experience genuine excitement, enthusiasm, confidence, and
optimism rather
than fake these feelings.
Leadership positions in organizations often entail a very hectic
work pace
with multiple and changing demands and high levels of stress
(Kanter, 1983;
Mintzberg, 1973). Not only do leaders have to meet these multiple
demands, but
they also have to constructively resolve conflicts, and generate
and maintain
a sense of cooperation and trust. Emotional intelligence
contributes to what
Epstein and colleagues refer to as constructive thinking or the
ability to
solve problems with a minimum of stress (Epstein, 1990; Katz
& Epstein, 1991).
While constructive thinking may facilitate problem solving in the
workplace in
general (Epstein & Meier, 1989), it may be especially
important for leaders.
Constructive thinking can lead to the generation of creative
ideas to settle
disagreements, arrive at win-win solutions to problems, and
ensure cooperation
and trust throughout an organization. Because leaders who are
high on
emotional intelligence are better able to understand and manage
their own
emotions, they may be more l ikely to engage in constructive
thinking to build
and maintain high levels of cooperation and trust.
Finally, leaders who are high on emotional intelligence may
instill in their
organizations a sense of enthusiasm, excitement, and optimism as
well as an
atmosphere of cooperation and trust through their being able to
develop high
quality interpersonal relationships with their followers. High
quality
interpersonal relationships between leaders and their followers
have been
documented to produce numerous advantages for organizations,
leaders, and
followers (Gerstner & Day, 1997; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995).
Recognizing,
appropriately responding to, and influencing followers' emotions
is necessary
for leaders to develop high quality interpersonal relationships
with them
(Salovey & Mayer, 1989-90) and positive affect is a critical
ingredient for
high levels of trust (Jones & George, 1998).
Encouraging flexibility in decision making and change
When leaders know and manage their emotions, they may be able to
use them to
improve their decision making. First, they can use them as
signals to direct
their attention to pressing concerns in need of immediate
attention, given the
many demands they face (Easterbrook, 1959; Frigda, 1988; Mandler,
1975; Simon,
1982). Emotions (linked to their causes) can serve as important
information to
use in prioritizing these demands. Moreover, when a leader
realizes that
emotions generated by low priority demands are interfering with
more pressing
demands, the leader's ability to actively manage the emotions
(part of
emotional intelligence) will also facilitate effective decision
making.
Second, emotions can provide leaders with information about
problems and
opportunities (Schwarz, 1990; Schwarz & Clore, 1988). Leaders
who accurately
perceive their emotions and can determine their causes can
determine when
emotions are linked to opportunities, problems, or proposed
courses of action,
and use those emotions as information in the process of making
decisions
(Schwarz, 1990; Schwarz & Clore, 1988). By knowing their
emotions and their
roots, leaders can effectively use emotional input in decision
making.
Additionally, when a leader identifies an experienced emotion as
irrelevant to
a decision, they can take steps to discount and manage the
emotion so that it
will not be a source of error in decision making. Emotional
intelligence,
therefore, enables leaders to both effectively use emotions in
decision making
and manage emotions which interfere with effective decision
making.
When leaders know and manage their emotions, they may be better
able to
flexibly approach problems, consider alternative scenarios, and
avoid rigidity
effects in decision making. Intuitively, and through meta-mood
regulation,
they may realize that different moods and emotions cause them to
view issues
differently and consider different types of options or
alternatives. As
mentioned earlier, the generation of multiple points of view and
options can
be aided by changes in moods and emotions (Mayer, 1986). When
leaders are
experiencing positive moods and emotions, their cognitive
processes and
considered alternatives will be different than when they are
experiencing
negative moods and emotions. For example, when leaders realize,
through
meta-mood regulation (Salovey et al., 1995), that a current
negative mood is
causing them to be overly pessimistic, they may deliberately
revisit a
proposed course of action in a more positive mood state to gain a
richer, more
flexible point of view. Similarly, meta-mood regulat ion may
cause leaders who
are optimistic and excited about a course of action due, in part,
to a more
pervasive positive mood state, to reconsider the course of action
in a more
neutral or negative mood state to more critically evaluate its
pros and cons.
This increased flexibility deriving from emotional intelligence
may also
contribute to effective leadership in another way. Effective
leaders are able
to identify relationships among the many issues they are
confronted with (Yukl
& Van Fleet, 1992), enabling them to respond to multiple
issues simultaneously
(Isenberg, 1984; McCall & Kaplan, 1985; Yukl & Van Fleet,
1992). Flexible
thinking arising out of emotional intelligence facilitates seeing
connections
among divergent information, and thus may help leaders see how
issues are
interrelated.
Additionally, emotional intelligence may contribute to a leader's
ability to
successfully implement changes in an organization. As Wasielewski
(1985: 213)
suggests, when leaders understand and are able to influence their
followers'
emotions, they may be able:
to get followers to reassess the feelings they experience and the
manner in
which they display them. Based on the ability to do this, a
leader may then be
able to substitute an alternative view of the world that resolves
this
emotional ambiguity; for example, a leader may point out that
anger is not an
adequate emotional response to existing injustices if the group
is interested
in effecting real change. The leader might then propose an
alternative view of
the present situation, along with an appropriate set of
alternative emotions
more suitable to achieving the desired goal.
Emotional intelligence in general, and the extent to which a
leader accurately
perceives and is able to influence followers' emotions in
particular, captures
the emotion-related abilities or skills which Wasielewski (1985)
suggests
result in a leader's ability to make major changes. Some people
have a
difficult time determining how other people feel. Other people
have a
difficult time appropriately responding to others' feelings. Both
types of
people would be very unlikely to be able to spearhead major
changes in an
organization. On the other hand, people who can accurately assess
how others
feel and respond to, and sometimes alter, these feelings in
productive ways
are much more likely to be able to effectively overcome
resistance to change
and transform an organization in significant ways. Responding to
and altering
others' emotions necessitates that leaders possess accurate
knowledge about
the causes of emotions and their change over time, an important
aspect of
emotional intelligence.
Establishing and maintaining a meaningful identity for an
organization
An organization's identity derives from and is a consequence of
its culture
(Trice & Beyer, 1993). Through an organization's culture,
organizational
members develop a collective identity embodied with meaning. In
this regard,
an increasingly important leadership activity pertains to the
development and
expression of organizational culture (e.g. Alvesson, 1992; Trice
& Beyer,
1993). Organizational culture is embodied in relatively shared
ideologies
containing important beliefs, norms, and values (Trice &
Beyer, 1993). Ongoing
technological advances suggest that work, in general, will become
less routine
in the future (House, 1995). Less routine work is harder to
monitor and
control directly and, hence, organizations may be increasingly
dependent upon
culture as a mechanism of influence. The development and
expression of culture
and organizational identity is, thus, likely to only increase in
importance
for effective leadership.
Values, and to a lesser extent norms and beliefs, are
emotion-laden. As
conceptions of what is desirable or sought after (Rokeach, 1973),
values evoke
and appeal to emotions. As described earlier, it is difficult, if
not
impossible, to determine what is desired or preferred in an
emotional vacuum
(Damasio, 1994; Goleman, 1995). Norms, especially internalized
norms, are also
value-laden in that positive feelings accompany conformity and
negative
feelings accompany deviance. Reaffirmations of norms also evoke
emotions
stemming from a feeling of 'rightness' of behavior. Beliefs about
how things
are also are intimately connected to emotions in that it is
impossible to
separate feelings from beliefs and both have the potential to
influence each
other. Firmly held beliefs are often firmly held because of their
emotional
content and appeal. Consistent with this analysis, Trice and
Beyer (1993: 33)
suggest that the content or substance of organizational culture
resides in
ideologies which are 'shared, relatively coh erently interrelated
sets of
emotionally charged beliefs, values, and norms that bind some
people together
and help them to make sense of their worlds'.
Trice and Beyer (1993) suggest that cultures are infused with
emotions and the
allegiance to and identification with cultures stem from people's
emotional
needs rather than from a more 'rational' or instrumental
perspective.
Violation of norms and values in a culture results in strong
emotional
reactions and cultures actually provide organizational members
with socially
acceptable ways to express their emotions.
Management of organizational culture is thus, in a sense,
management of
emotions (Van Maanen & Kunda, 1989). It necessitates that
leaders are able to
instill in followers a collective sense of an organization's
important norms
and values. In order to identify these norms and values, leaders
must be
attuned to their own and their followers' feelings, and express
and embrace
norms and values in a way that will appeal to and generate strong
feelings.
Norms and values must be infused with feelings and emotions that
support them,
and leaders can be instrumental in this process for their own
motivation and
sensemaking, for the motivation and sensemaking of their
followers, and to
build and maintain a meaningful collective identity for the
organization.
Some of the major ways that culture is manifested in
organizations is through
cultural forms including symbols, language, narratives, and
practices (Trice &
Beyer, 1993). Cultural forms help organizational members to make
sense of and
identify with organizational reality, and to manage and regulate
their
emotions (Trice & Beyer, 1993). Cultural forms also are a
means of expressing
emotions in organizations and the effective use of cultural forms
hinges on
their ability to generate emotions (Ashforth & Humphrey,
1995; Harris &
Sutton, 1986). As Ashforth and Humphrey (1995: 111) suggest, 'the
success of
symbolic management is largely dependent upon the evocation of
emotion'.
Leaders' effective use of cultural forms is contingent upon many
of the
aforementioned aspects of emotional intelligence -- being aware
of feelings,
knowing the causes of feelings and how they change over time,
being able to
express feelings, being able to induce feelings in others, and
even having the
tacit knowledge of how and why emotions are tied up with cultural
forms.
Whether in drama and literature or in organizations, symbols and
stories
appeal to and often operate through emotions.
Conclusions
The present analysis suggests that, at a minimum, emotions and
emotional
intelligence are worthy of consideration in the leadership
domain. Emotional
intelligence has the potential to contribute to effective
leadership in
multiple ways, some of which have been illuminated in this paper.
At this
point, a skeptic might ask, 'But why is this so relevant to
leadership per
se?'. The special relevance to leadership revolves around the
fact that
leadership is an emotion-laden process, both from a leader and a
follower
perspective.
Clearly, what is needed now is empirical research which tests the
ideas
proposed in this paper. Given the complexities of the issues
involved, both
qualitative and quantitative methodologies hold promise for
exploring the ways
in which emotional intelligence may contribute to leader
effectiveness, as
theorized in this paper. Meaningful quantitative investigations
could take
place in both field and laboratory settings as well as through
the use of
management simulations. Additionally, given the stage of
development of
theorizing and research on emotional intelligence, I would like
to point out
that there are several measures of emotional intelligence that
have been
developed and could be used to measure the emotional intelligence
levels of
research participants (e.g. Mayer et al., 1997; Salovey et al.,
1995).
A caveat concerning the current analysis is that it has focused
primarily on
leaders and it has been argued that leadership theory and
research would
benefit from consideration of a more follower-centered approach
(e.g. Meindl,
1990, 1993; Meindl et al., 1985). In this regard, the study of
emotional
intelligence and leadership would benefit from the consideration
of emotional
intelligence in followers and its effects on the leadership
process.
Additionally, and from a symbolic interactionist perspective, it
would be
interesting to explore how interactions between leaders and
followers result
in the creation and management of emotions in a work setting.
All in all, investigating how leaders' capabilities in the
emotion domain or
their emotional intelligence contribute to their effectiveness
certainly seems
worthy of future empirical research and theorizing. Hopefully,
the current
analysis has provided researchers with some guidance in this
regard.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Arthur Brief and three anonymous reviewers
for their
very helpful comments on an earlier version of this paper.
Jennifer M. George received her PhD in management and
organizational behavior
from New York University and is the Mary Gibbs Jones Professor of
Management
and Professor of Psychology in the Jesse H. Jones Graduate School
of
Management at Rice University. Her research interests include
affect, mood,
and emotion in the workplace, emotional intelligence, personality
influences,
creativity, groups and teams, prosocial behavior and customer
service, values
and work-life linkages, and stress and well-being.
Notes
(1.) In asserting that emotional intelligence contributes to
leaders being
able to manage the emotions of others, I by no means intend to
imply that this
is a manipulative act or some kind of overt control. Rather, all
that is being
suggested is that emotionally intelligent leaders are able to
influence their
followers' emotions in ways that are functional for the followers
and the
organization just as emotionally intelligent followers are able
to influence
their leaders' emotions. Emotions are multiply determined and
effective
leaders have some influence in this process. All kinds of people,
situations,
and events have the potential to influence how one feels. Leaders
who are high
on emotional intelligence understand this and also understand how
to, for
example, dissipate anger that is getting out of control or lift
sagging
spirits after a setback on an important project.
(2.) Importantly, I do not mean to imply that these are the only
elements of
effective leadership or that this is an exhaustive list. Rather,
the elements
that are focused on here figure prominently both in recent
syntheses of the
leadership literature as well as in contemporary theorizing and
research.
However, other elements of effective leadership could be
identified.
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